Assembly Language or Machine Code ?

1985: it is calculated that about 25 000 different programmes exist for microcomputers. 1960: it is calculated the existence of about 5 000 computers in the world. Since the late 1940's almost every computer in the world understands directly only one form of communication, known by the names of "binal code", "binary code", "code in numbering base two", "machine code" or "low level code". It makes possible the insertion of elements to form an integrated circuit, as it had been proposed by G. W. A. Dummer in 1952. Integrated circuits gradually substituted printed circuits as main computer processors, although printed circuits remained in use for simpler purposes. 1961-1962: Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor start separately the serial production of integrated circuits of silicium (shortly later called chips), to substitute printed circuits in arithmetic logical units. 1961: field effect transistor by Steven Hofstein, that made possible the development of MOS transistor (Metallic Oxid Semiconductor) by R. C. A. July 1961: essay on the theory of packet interchange for computer networks, by Leonard Kleinrock (Massachussets Institute of Technology). 1944-1950: Whirlwind, digital computer by Jay Forrester (Massachussetts Institute of Technology), first computer operable in real time.

Universal Robots. 1930: Differential Analyser, analogue computer for solving equations, using numbering base of ten, by Vannevar Bush (Massachussetts Institute of Technology). 1964: Leonard Kleinrock publishes a book on the theory of packet interchange for computer networks. At the same event, Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury (Nuclear Physics Laboratory, in Great Britain) also present a project on a computer network based on packet interchange. December 1971: Network Control Protocol, first host to host protocol of Arpanet, by S. Crocker (Network Work Group). August 1968: after Lawrence G. Roberts and his DARPA group had defined the specifications for Arpanet, a group led by Frank Heart (Bolt Beranek) and by Newman (B. 1968: B 2500 and B 3500, computers built with integrated circuits, by Burroughs Corporation. Most previous computers or calculators had been only mechanic, some had been electro-mechanic, but all of them using numbering base of ten by means of pinion wheels (in the mechanic devices), or of electric relais (in the electro-mechanic devices). The suggestion of using perforated cards had been proposed by John Shaw Billings, inspired on automatic weaving machines and on other similar mechanic devices.

This essay was inspired on the analogue Differential Analyser of Vannevar Bush, that Shannon had studied in detail, what is billiards and on the suggestion proposed in 1867 by Charles Sanders Peirce. The ideas of Mister Shannon have been since 1937 applied to telephone switches. In 1975, Mister Paul Allen and Mister William Bill Gates, founders of Micro-Soft Corporation (name later modified to Microsoft Corporation), began their activities by adapting a Basic dialect to microcomputers. Pascal is a translated language structured by modules, created by Professor Niklaus Wirth (University of Zurich, Switzerland) in 1971. Based mainly on Algol, Pascal began as a teaching tool for forming new programmers. This remarkable technique allowed programmers to enjoy the best features of an interpreted language with the execution speed of a translated one. AIML, Artificial Intelligence Mark-up Language: a sub-set of Standard Generalised Mark-up Language. They are edited and coordinated by Jon Postel (Stanford Research Institute), and have become the technical standard on which Internet is based. It must be said that CGI is not really a language, but an adaptation for providing a standard to true programming languages. Shortly later appeared the IBM 370 and the Basic Operating System, Tape Operating System and Disk Operating System (unrelated to Basic programming language, or to later DOS operating systems such as PC-DOS, MS-DOS, DR-DOS, et cetera).

1980: 86-DOS, 86 Disk Operating System, of 16 bits (Seattle Computer, based on CP/M-86, another operating system of 16 bits). 1943-1946: ENIAC, Electronic Numeric Integrator Analyser and Computer, SECOND FULLY ELECTRONIC DIGITAL COMPUTER (of much bigger size than the ABC, the Z-3, the Z-4 or the Colossus I), by Presper Eckert in collaboration with John Mauchly (-1980) (Moore Engineering School, University of Pennsylvania), and in collaboration with John Von Neumann (1903-1957) (Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton, not to confuse with Max Newman). In spite of being a tenth part the size of the ENIAC, the UNIVAC I had a memory hundredfold the memory of the ENIAC. It gradually substituted memory by vacuum tubes. Turion 64 processors (but not Turion 64 X2 processors) are compatible with AMD's Socket 754 and are equipped with 512 or 1024 Kb of L2 cache, a 64-bit single channel on-die memory controller, and an 800 MegaHertz Hyper Transport bus. Annother effort to facilitate structured modular programming in connected blocks, as opposed to sequential linear programming in a single block.